The Gendered Metamorphosis of Witches Throughout History: With an Emphasis on Historical and Anthropological Data from the Zagros Regions
Document Type : پژوهشی اصیل
Author
PhD in Persian Language and Literature from the University of Kurdistan, Kurdistan, Iran .
10.48311/cfl.2025.86465.0
Abstract
In public belief, magic is an astonishing and supernatural act often attributed to women. Despite extensive research in this field, the reason behind the notion that "women are more adept at witchcraft" or "most witches are women" remains unexplored. Previous studies have largely sufficed with defining, classifying, and providing statistics on the gender of witches, neglecting a historical and discourse-based analysis of this phenomenon. This article adopts a historical approach, utilizing library research and the analysis of anthropological and mythological data, to investigate the roots of this notion and the semantic evolution of magic from positive to negative. The findings indicate that the "woman-witch" notion is rooted in the era of matriarchy; a period when magic was not negative but a creative, positive, and vital act for survival (such as agriculture, healing, and cooking), and women, as the primary agents in these spheres, were called "witches." With the gradual transition of societies to patriarchy
and the shift in worldview, a process of "semantic metamorphosis" began. In this process, to delegitimize the former power of women, the new dominant discourse transformed the concept of magic from a positive phenomenon into a negative, diabolical, and aberrant one. A comparative analysis of three different versions of the Kurdish story "Mam and Zin" (Tuhfat al-Muzaffariyya, the Lescot version, and Ahmad Khani's masnavi) provides a concrete example of this distortion and rewriting of women's roles in cultural texts. The conclusion is that the "woman-witch" notion is not an inherent reality but a historical-discursive construct formed in the context of conflicting worldviews.
and the shift in worldview, a process of "semantic metamorphosis" began. In this process, to delegitimize the former power of women, the new dominant discourse transformed the concept of magic from a positive phenomenon into a negative, diabolical, and aberrant one. A comparative analysis of three different versions of the Kurdish story "Mam and Zin" (Tuhfat al-Muzaffariyya, the Lescot version, and Ahmad Khani's masnavi) provides a concrete example of this distortion and rewriting of women's roles in cultural texts. The conclusion is that the "woman-witch" notion is not an inherent reality but a historical-discursive construct formed in the context of conflicting worldviews.
Keywords
Subjects
Abarghouei, O. (2021). Functional approach to the study of magic. Quarterly Journal of Applied Studies in Social Sciences and Sociology, 4(3), 75-84. [In Persian]
Abolghasemi, M. (1996). A historical grammar of the Persian language. SAMT. [In Persian]
Amouzgar, Zh. (2011). Language, culture, myth (3rd ed.). Moin. [In Persian]
Azadegan, J. (2007). Magic and magicology, Nos. 1-6. Cultural-Mystical Quarterly of Aftab-e Asrar, 4(19), 16-22. [In Persian]
Barati, P. (2022). Winds of enchantment: An introduction to the knowledge of occult sciences in Iran (6th ed.). Charkh. [In Persian]
Campbell, J. (2018). The power of myth (translated by A. Mokhber). Markaz. [In Persian]
Cassirer, E. (2017). The philosophy of symbolic forms, Volume Two: mythical thought (translated by Y. Moqen). Hermes. [In Persian]
Clark, G. (2000). World prehistory: A new perspective (translated by B. Farrokhi et al.). Donyaye Madar. [In Persian]
Damavandi, M. (2009). Magic among peoples and religions and its reflection in Persian literature (2nd rev. ed.). Semnan University Press. [In Persian]
Daryabandari, N. (2020). The legend of myth (3rd ed.). Karnameh. [In Persian]
Diakonoff, I. M. (2020). The paths of history (translated by M. Haghighat Khah). Qoqnoos. [In Persian]
Durant, W. J. (2003). Woman, man, and sexual morality in the cradle of civilization. Avand Andisheh. [In Persian]
Durkheim, E. (2019). The elementary forms of religious life (translated by B. Parham). Markaz. [In Persian]
Eliade, M. (2014). Symbolism, the sacred, and the arts (translated by M. K. Mohajeri). Parseh. [In Persian]
Eliade, M. (2015). A history of religious ideas, Volume 1: From the stone age to the eleusinian mysteries (translated by M. Salehi Alameh). Niloufar. [In Persian]
Eliade, M. (2016). Essential sacred writings from around the world (translated by M. Salehi Alameh). Fararavan. [In Persian]
Engels, F. (2020). The origin of the family, private property and the state (translated by Kh. Parsa). Talayeh Porso. [In Persian]
Frazer, J. G. (2013). The golden bough: A study in magic and religion (translated by K. Firoozmand). Agah. [In Persian]
Freud, S. (2012). The moses of Michelangelo and seven other essays (translated by M. Behforouzi). Jami. [In Persian]
Fromm, E. (2001). The forgotten language: An introduction to the understanding of dreams, fairy tales, and myths (translated by E. Amanat). Firouzeh. [In Persian]
Golsorkhi, A. (1998). The history of witchcraft (1st ed.). Elm. [In Persian]
Hamilton, M. B. (2019). The sociology of religion (translated by M. Thalathi). Sales. [In Persian]
Harari, Y. N. (2017). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind (translated by N. Gorgin). Nashr-e Now. [In Persian]
Harlan, J. R. (2014). The evolution of crops: A historical look at plant domestication by humans (translated by M. Khajeh Hosseini et al.). Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research (Jahad Daneshgahi). [In Persian]
Hauser, A. (1996). The social history of art, Volume I (translated by E. Younesi). Kharazmi Publishing Co. [In Persian]
Heining, P. (1998). A survey of the history of witchcraft (translated by H. Tavalaei). Atiyeh. [In Persian]
Howarth, D. (2019). Discourse (translated by R. Ghasemi). Andisheh-ye Ehsan. [In Persian]
Idrisian, Gh. (2019). Kurds and Kurdistan in the millennia of prehistory and antiquity (2nd ed.). Sardam. [In Persian]
Jabbari, N. (2017). The cosmological opposition of art and magic in the Shahnameh (based on the story of Fereydun and Zahhak). Classical Persian Literature, Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, 8(3), 1-20. [In Persian]
Jahanshahi Afshar, A., & Jahadi Hosseini, S. A. (2017). Magic and witchcraft in the tale of Amir Arsalan-e Namdar. Bimonthly Journal of Culture and Popular Literature, 5(18), 105-130. [In Persian]
Jahoda, G. (1992). The psychology of superstition (translated by M. Baraheni). Alborz. [In Persian]
Khan Hamadani, F. (trans.) (2001). The Holy Bible (Old and New Testaments). Asatir. [In Persian]
Khani, A. (2013). Mam and Zin (translated by M. Rahimi). Goutar. [In Persian]
Khodish, P. (2009). Reflection and functions of magic and sorcery in enchanting tales. Journal of the Faculty of Literature and Humanities, 17(65), 151-165. [In Persian]
Kottak, C. P. (2007). Anthropology: The exploration of human diversity (translated by M. Thalathi). Elmi. [In Persian]
Laniter, J. (2009). Magical villages (translated by M. Mousavi Zanjani). Javdan Kherad. [In Persian]
Lescot, R. (2003). The legend of Memê Alan, the Kurdish prince (translated by M. Riyani & J. Nezami). Aroj. [In Persian]
Lévy-Bruhl, L. (2021). How natives think (Les fonctions mentales dans les sociétés inférieures) (translated by Y. Moqen). Hermes. [In Persian]
Malinowski, B. (1994). The Trobrianders: Malinowski's anthropological research (translated by A. Mokhber). Tarh-e Now. [In Persian]
Malinowski, B. (2016). Magic, science and religion (translated by B. Khalilian & M. Aghaei). Jami. [In Persian]
Mann, O. (2006). Tuhfat al-Muzaffariyya. Aras. [In Persian]
Mauss, M. (2018). A general theory of magic (translated by H. Torkaman-Nejad). Markaz. [In Persian]
Mendoza, S. F. (2021). Witches, evildoers, and sorcerers: The concept of the demon in ancient Iran (translated by A. Saeb). Farhameh. [In Persian]
Mir Abdollahi Lavasani, A. (2010). A glance at witchcraft in anthropology. Gozaresh Magazine, 19(216), 33-35. [In Persian]
Mohammadi, M. H. (2004). Magic in Persian literature. Faculty of Literature and Humanities, 170-171, 53-61. [In Persian]
Mokhtari, M. (1989). The epic in the national mystery (1st ed.). Qatreh. [In Persian]
Morgan, L. H. (2020). Ancient society (translated by M. Thalathi). Sales. [In Persian]
Movahed Nassaj, A., & Aminzadeh Zargar, F. (2012). Woman and magic in myth and history. Quarterly Journal of History, 7(24), 133-134. [In Persian]
Otooni, B. (2005). Sympathetic magic (superstition) and its function in myth. Quarterly Journal of Literary Aesthetics, 1(4), 93-118. [In Persian]
Otooni, B. (2011). Magic as a fundamental infrastructure in mythological worldview. Scientific-Research Quarterly of Kavoshnameh, 12(22), 231-250. [In Persian]
Parnian, M., Omidian, M., & Hosseini Ab Bariki, V. A. (2012). art in the Shahnameh. Specialized Quarterly of Stylistics of Persian Poetry and Prose (Bahar-e Adab), 5(1), 263-273. [In Persian]
Rastegar Fasaee, M. (2004). Metamorphosis in myths (1st ed.). Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies. [In Persian]
Reed, E. (2011). Patriarchy: woman in the course of history (translated by A. Magsoudi). Golazin. [In Persian]
Reed, E. (2017). Women's evolution: From matriarchal clan to patriarchal family (translated by A. Magsoudi). Golazin. [In Persian]
Rezaei, M., & Hosseini, A. (2024). An investigation of magic, incantations, and poems in healing rituals of Bushehr province based on James Frazer's view. Bimonthly Journal of Culture and Popular Literature, 12(55), 39-71. [In Persian]
Sattari, R., & Khosravi, S. (2017). A study of the aimilarities between fairies and sorceress women in post-Shahnameh epic poems. Literary Text Research, 21(74), 7-30. [In Persian]
Smith, W. R. (2011). The religion of the semites (translated by Z. Farghani). Master's Thesis, Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies, Shahid Motahari University, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. [In Persian]
Taifei, Sh., & Rahimi, M. (2017). An inquiry into the myths of the Kurdish verse romance "Mam and Zin". Journal of Kurdish Literature, 4, 59-82. [In Persian]
Van Dijk, T. (2015). Ideology and discourse (translated by M. Nobakht). Siahrood. [In Persian]
Vosoughi, M., & Khajehzadeh, N. (2014). Representation of magic in modern lifestyles with an emphasis on the expansion of private spheres (case study of women in Dezful). Journal of Iranian Social Development Studies, 7(1), 21-36. [In Persian]
Zarlaki, Sh. (2021). Women, menstruation, and monthly madness: A mythological and historical study of menstruation and premenstrual syndrome (6th ed.). Cheshmeh. [In Persian]
