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As a trigger to communication, motivation still includes undiscovered aspects which require further investigation. Hence, considering the newly proposed dual continuum model of motivation, this study investigated the relationships among willingness to communicate (WTC), active/passive motivation, and foreign language achievement (FLA) among 216 high school English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. The modified version of the active/passive motivation scale (APMS) was revalidated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed significant relationships among active/passive motivation, L2WTC, and FLA. Additionally, six models were proposed for the prediction of learners’ L2WTC and FLA. The findings indicated that socio-cultural and sensory-perceptual active motivation as well as cognitive and sensory-perceptual passive motivation significantly predict learners’ L2WTC, while only cognitive active motivation predicts FLA. Furthermore, passive motivation predicts FLA in all sub-constructs. Finally, active motivation is a negative predictor of FLA if mediated by L2WTC. Overall, the study highlights the importance of passive as well as active motivation in promoting WTC and improving FLA among EFL learners.

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Waitance is a cognitive and psychological concept that reflects the tendency to anticipate the occurrence of good or bad events without the need for effort or specific activity in Iranian culture. The aim of this qualitative and applied research is to examine the waitance cultuling in light of the conceptual model of cultuling analysis in Iranian culture. To this end, 435 individuals were asked in April 2024 to express their views on sentences that represent the cultural aspects of waitance through semi-structured interviews. The results showed this cultural aspect is used with high frequency in both public and private formal and informal settings among individuals with informal relationships, by both genders, and more by middle-aged and elderly individuals and individuals from lower and middle social classes. Individuals with tones such as friendly and intimate, hopeful, desperate and hopeless, caring, angry, serious, humorous, and pragmatic use this cultural aspect with goals such as attracting attention, providing hope and comfort, encouraging patience, avoiding responsibility, seeking comfort, advising, referring problems to higher authorities, and so on. This mentioned cultural aspect, with high frequency and positive/negative emotions, indicates patterns of low trust, collectivism, short-term planning, idealism, and high waitance among Iranians. By analyzing these linguistic utterances, individuals can be made aware of the hidden culture within them and take steps toward euculturing and understanding the flawed genes of society.
 

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Teaching is a profession which is intermingled with emotional relationships. Teachers’ relationships with their classes have been shown to positively influence their performance. However, despite the novelty of the concept of teacher-class relationship (TCR) in the field of applied linguistics, examining the relationship between language teachers with the whole class has not received due attention. To shed more light on this novel concept and its antecedents, the present study aimed to investigate the role of psychological well-being, foreign language teaching enjoyment and work engagement in the TCR of language teachers. A sample of 428 English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers participated in the study by completing four online questionnaires, namely the Teacher-Class Relationship Scale, the Psychological Well-being at Work (PWBW) Scale, the Foreign Language Teaching Scale (FLTES), and the Engaged Teacher Scale (ETS). The results of structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that EFL teachers’ psychological well-being, foreign language teaching enjoyment and work engagement were strong predictors of their TCR. In addition, it was revealed that work engagement was the strongest predictor. The findings were discussed regarding the significance of developing EFL teachers’ TCR. This study suggests that EFL teachers with high level of well-being who enjoy their profession and have dedication to their job are more likely to build strong relationships with their classes. Finally, suggestions for future research were provided. 

 

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The process of learning never happens in vacuum, and the final product encompasses the various interactions between the language learner and the surrounding world. Most often, the language learner is assessed in a two-way relationship and in this respect, the academic environment and the classroom are the first and the last destinations, which are considered. Considering the importance of ecological and environmental factors in learning a foreign language, the present article tries to investigate the parents’ role in learning English language qualitatively. The amount of effective interaction between the parents and the child, the amount of accessibility to cultural goods such as computer and the Internet and that the effects of these goods on learning, as well as the parents` values with respect to learning English language were included as the purpose of this study. The study was conducted based on the following assumptions: (a) Intelligence and aptitude are not the only way toward success or failure in learning English language, and (b) there may be some discrepancies between the set of values advocated by schools and institutes with those of the parents. Thirty-five families participated in this study whose children were instructed in English language institutes in Mashhad. We interviewed all of these families as well as their children. The results revealed that families in both more-proficient and less-proficient learners use various strategies. At the end, some recommendations were given to improve the quality of education within families.  

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Given the important and fundamental role of culture in the way of thinking and reasoning of individuals in a society, this study intends to investigate the concept of culture in order to explore the cultural differences between the West and Iran, and to show that some data collection methods are not suitable for the context of Iran, which are wrongly utilized by Iranian researchers and students. In comparison with the West, the Iranian culture is considered to be indirect, relational, multiple, context-driven, modest, and inductive. These features put the application of some research tools such as questionnaires, retrospection (a kind of thinking aloud technique), and diaries (a research technique for collecting personal experiences of individuals) into question in the Iranian context. In the end, the results are analyzed and discussed in the context of Iran, and some suggestions are made for further research.

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Granted that advertisements reflect the dominant mindset of a society, this study intends to scrutinize the use of argumentation speech act in both Persian and English advertisements with the purpose of discovering the underlying conventions of these argumentations. With that in mind, based on Toulmin’s (1958) model of argumentation, one hundred advertisements (50 Persian ads and 50 English ads) were randomly selected from the popular magazines published in both Persian and English languages. The advertisements which were selected in this study were published in the last decade. Chi-square test analysis revealed significant differences between the Persian and English advertisements, indicating that claim outweighs the other elements of the argumentation speech act in the Persian advertisements. However, the English ones employ data more than the other modules of the argumentation speech act. In the end, the cultural reasons causing the differences were discussed.    

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With regard to the salient role of language in shaping the culture of a society, the present study is seeking to delve into praying in Persian and English languages. To achieve this purpose, 168 movies were watched and conversations including praying instances were transcribed and later analyzed. The collected data was scrutinized based on Hymes’ (1967) model of speaking. The results exhibited that Iranians employed praying in their everyday life much more than the English people did. In addition, people’s intentions of using the speech act of praying and their referents were uncovered. In the end, the possible reasons of the differences in two languages of Persian and English were discussed. 
 

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Creating and approving official Persian equivalents for the foreign words in Persian language is of great importance, which is considered to be done by the Persian Language Academy. Neologisms or newly-coined words are the inventions produced by language planners, which are supposed to replace the loan words. But these new words usually cannot have the opportunity to be entered into the active vocabularies of a significant portion of the native speakers of the Persian language. In this regard, we have proposed emotioncy as a tool for the acceptance of neologisms. Emotioncy, which is a blend of ‘emotion’ and ‘frequency’, refers to sense-induced emotions. In fact, it deals with the ways (e.g., visually or kinesthetically) individuals experience the world, which can affect and shape their mindsets. Considering this newly-developed concept of‘emotioncy” and its components (emotion, sense, and frequency), the present study intends to introduce this concept as a new tool to examine the problems of accepting neologisms. To be more specific, the present study aims to address the following research question: What strategies can be adopted by the Persian Language Academy in order to increase and decrease the emotioncy levels of words? Regarding this goal, a number of strategies were proposed in order to increase the emotioncy levels of neologisms (positivising emotions, enriching senses, and increasing frequency) and decrease the emotioncy levels of the loan words (negativizing emotions, depriving senses, and lowering frequency). It is our belief that these strategies can be implemented by the Persian Language Academy to popularize Persian neologisms. In the end, a number of implications were proposed and some suggestions were made for further studies.

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giving advice	encouraging to be patient
good wish	being grateful
religious beliefs	being happy
showing exaggeration	solidarity and cooperation

Admonitory	hopeful
Praising	humorous
wishing good

•  Agar, M. (1994).  Language Shock.  Understanding the Culture of Conversation. New York: NY: William Morrow.
•  Bigdeli, I. (2020). The management of intrapersonal and interpersonal relationships based on "Ordering Model. Introducing the conceptual model of training. Mashhad: Ferdowsi University of Mashhad.
•  Hymes, D. (1967). Models of the interaction of language and social setting. Journal of Social Issues. 23(2). pp. 8-28.
•  Pishghadam, R. (2013). Introducing cultuling as a dynamic tool in culturology of language. Language and Translation Studies, 45, 47-62.
•  Pishghadam, R., Derakhshan, A., & Jannati Ataei, A. (in press). An investigation of the cultulings of “Patriarchy” and “Matriarchy” in the Iranian culture: A comparative case study of Iranian movies across two decades of 1360s and 1390s. Women in Culture and Art.
•  Pishghadam, R., Ebrahimi, S., & Derakhshan, A. (in press). Cultuling analysis: A new methodology for discovering cultural Memes. International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 1-18.
•  Pishghadam, R., Ebrahimi, S, & Derakhshan, A. (in press). Introducing "Emoling" as a missing link in ethnography of communication: A supplement to SPEAKING Model of Hymes. Language Related Research.
•  Pishghadam, R., Ebrahimi, S., Naji Meidani, E., & Derakhshan, A. (in press). An introduction to “Cultuling” Analysis (CLA) in light of variational pragmatics: A step towards “Euculturing”. Research in Applied Linguistics.
•  Risager, K. (2011). The cultural dimensions of language teaching and learning. Language Teaching, 44(4). pp. 485-499.
•  Risager, K. (2012). Linguaculture and transnationality: the cultural dimensions of language. The Routledge Handbook of Language and Intercultural Communication. 117-131: Routledge.
•  Wardhaugh, R. (2010). An introduction to sociolinguistics (6^th ed.). Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
•  Zolfaghari, H. (2013).The major dictionary of Persian proverbs (in Farsi). Tehran. Alam.

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Granted that senses and emotions are key components in facilitating the process of language learning and teaching, it is essential for different models of instruction to take language learners’ emotions into account. It is in fact believed that emotions could be generated from the involvement of senses. A pertinent concept which juxtaposes senses and their resultant emotions is emotioncy. The concept of emotioncy (emotion+), pioneered by Pishghadam, Tabatabaeyan, and Navari (2013), is based on the psychological findings of the Developmental Individual-Differences Relationship-based (DIR) model, suggesting that sensory emotions are the cornerstones of evolution and learning. Following the assumptions of this model, when a language learner has never heard of a concept/item, s/he has no emotions for it (Null emotioncy). When s/he hears about the concept/item, the degree of emotioncy for that word increases to the auditory level, and if s/he sees or touches that item, the emotioncy may surpasses the auditory level to the Visual and Kinesthetic levels, respectively. Direct involvement with the concept/item engenders Inner emotioncy which can be maximized by doing research (Arch emotioncy).  At this stage, an accurate understanding of the subject will be formed which may lead to profound learning. Drawing upon the emotioncy model, in this study, the researchers made an attempt to teach a number of Persian language issues and, thereafter investigate the effect of this model on the emotions of the Persian language learners and their learning outcomes. To do so, 60 non-Iranian female students with the same Persian level (7^th grade) from 16 different countries (including India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Turkey, Egypt, Madagascar, Burundi, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Libya, Tajikistan, Lebanon, Iraq, Guinea-Bissau, Syria, and Indonesia) who were studying at Al-Mostafa International University were categorized into 4 groups of 15 and participated in classes for a period of 6 weeks. Different concepts were taught during each session according to each level of emotioncy. At the end of each session, the learners’ emotions were evaluated via the academic emotions questionnaire Pekrun, 2002) and emotioncy scale (Pishghadam, 2015). The results related to the auditory session revealed that the learners did not show very positive emotions for the relevant subject. Yet, their emotions improved in the Visual session. The change in the emotions of the learners from negative to positive was also evident in the kinesthetic session. At this stage, learners were more actively involved with the subject and gave convincing reasons for their emotional experiences. In the fifth session (Inner), having brought the necessary and relevant instruments to the class, the instructor asked the learners to simulate the instructed subject. In the final session (Arch), the learners were asked to explore the resources available (cyberspace, library, etc.) about the topics taught during the fifth session. Overall, the results indicated significant differences in the emotions of non-Iranian female students, concluding that by involving senses in the process of teaching, the learners’ emotioncy level increases and positive emotions are thus produced. As a result, there was a positive correlation between emotioncy-based instruction and the amount of positive emotions on the part of non-Iranian Persian language learners. Taken together, the emotioncy model seems to help enhance the positive emotions of Persian language learners, providing a more successful learning environment for them.
 

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Speaking, listening, writing, and reading have a particular influence on the language learners’ improvement and paying attention to improving such skills is necessary for teaching a second language. Since speaking and listening are naturally acquired from the beginning of our lives (Brown, 2001), most of the language learners pay more attention to these two and the other two skills take the back seats, though comprehension mostly happens through writing (Bazerman et al., 2005). Writing can bring the words and the language to the conscious level (Olson, 1993) and can produce a more lasting representation of the meaning, create a higher level of knowledge structure and deeper and more consistent learning (Brossard, 2001). In this regard, knowing the fact that creativity of the written texts is directly related to classroom involvement can probably be used for improving the students’ skills. For this reason, the present study aims to highlight the role of senses in the writing skill to reduce the difficulties a learner might face. Hence, the writers have employed the sensory relativism framework (Pishghadam, Jajarami, & Shayesteh, 2016) to teach writing and hypothesized that people’s senses can affect their understandings of the world and should their senses change; their conceptualization may vary as well. In other words, individuals’ outlook may be different if their first encounter to a concept is visual than tactile. Given the importance of sensory relativity in molding foreign language learners' perception of the new language, the present study attempted to assess Persian language learners' writing skill using their five senses. For this purpose, 40 non-Persian language learners, classified into four groups of 10, from 16 different countries, and at the same level of Persian language (level 7), were selected to participate in 20 sessions of sensory-relativism-based Persian language teaching class for five weeks. Regarding CAF (complexity, accuracy, and fluency) measures, results of qualitative analysis of 200 written texts about four Iranian cultural themes showed the significant effect of sensory relativity hypothesis on the language learners' writing skill. In other words, more involvement of the sensory stimuli brings about the internalization of students' information in their long-term memory. Furthermore, changes or addition in the level of senses can hierarchically relativize the students' level of learning. Subsequently, with the involvement of more senses, the accuracy, fluency, and complexity of the writing in the stages of involvement (inner and arch) were more than the stages of exvolvement (auditory, visual, and kinesthetic).The achieved findings revealed the effectiveness of this hypothesis on teaching language skills.
 

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Among the most controversial issues in language teaching is teaching grammar. Some educational approaches pay significant attention to linguistic forms and believe that language teaching is equal to teaching grammar (Nassaji & Fotos, 2011). Nowadays, a more rational approach is taken regarding teaching grammar. Learning grammar is argued to be necessary for uttering correct sentences and paying simultaneous attention to form and function is a must in language teaching. Robins (as cited in Safavi, 2011, p.25) is of the view that “language should be considered as a system with mutually-related dependent factors. These factors are either lexical, syntactical, or morphological.” Therefore, syntax can be considered as the organizing element for these factors. Based on prioritizing syntax in language teaching, various methods have been taken into consideration, among which traditional ones, such as Grammar-Translation Method (GTM), put a great emphasis on teaching grammar deductively. On the other hand, methods, such as Audiolingualism, suggest inductive teaching because they believe verbal communication is as essential as grammatical forms. Meaning-based approaches pay attention to meaning, and in their extreme extensions, such as natural approach, grammar is completely put aside. Communicative approaches, as the name suggests, highlight the communicative aspects of language, and grammar, along with other components of language, is utilized to improve communicative competence.
By introducing the cognitive approach, whose idea revolves around the fact that the structure of language reflects our thoughts, the role of senses and cognition in teaching linguistic components, including grammar, became important. By means of such approaches, learners can objectify abstract concepts through their senses and use critical thinking, futures thinking, and creative thinking to learn the language more thoroughly. Here, grammar is not merely a set of memorized rules, but it is a tool by which learners can think better. The present study, therefore, intends to introduce an educational approach that include various levels of senses, because we are of the view that grammar should be thought more dynamically to improve the learners’ reflection. This, we believe, can be achieved by a new categorization based on thick-slice and thin-slice sensory teaching, which is beyond theoretical teaching, and includes practical teaching and thinking skills teaching. The presented approach, applicative teaching, whose name is a mixture of application and reflection, teaches students how to think critically, creatively, and futuristically. Based on this approach, grammar teaching starts with theoretical, form-based aspects and moves to practical, function-based aspects, and tries to fixate the rules by making students think about what has been taught. Results show that by involving senses and cognition, learners’ awareness, creativity, and communicative competence are improved, which can consequently help them learn the grammatical rules better. In this vein, teachers can employ those tasks that boost students’ creative thinking and critical thinking to teach grammar applicatively.

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Audiovisual translation is a thriving new area of research on a-century-old practice of an intercultural communication mode. Subtitling as one of the most popular forms of audiovisual translation has been practiced by professionals in various ways. Traditionally, subtitlers have been asked to individually carry out the linguistic transfer between languages, to decide the in and out times of subtitles on screen, as well as to carry out the simulation, revision and quality control of the subtitles; an obsolete attitude which may not be compatible with today’s real world facts and working conditions and demands. Subtitling has also gained a special attention by language teaching experts as a very useful educational tool with many benefits for foreign language learners, hence the importance of subtitling education development. The present article investigates the influence of subtitle training classroom experience on subtitler trainees’ attitude towards teamwork skills in subtitling practice. Considering the special time constraints of subtitling projects and the different skills required for this translation, the role of teamwork has been typically highlighted in such projects both at the professional and freelance levels. To study the current situation and the relationship between subtitling education and teamwork in the Iranian training setting, 167 male and female English translation students at undergraduate level were selected to contribute to this project. The participants attended a 5-month subtitler training program in the form of 6 separate classes to learn and improve their subtitling skills. The quasi-experimental research based on a pre-test post-test model was used to collect data on the students’ attitude about teamwork skills before the training and after they have attended the course and have completed three real market-based subtitling projects in teams. The reliability and validity of the self-designed questionnaire to study the translation students’ attitudes towards teamwork skills were statistically established using confirmatory factor analysis and scale reliability analysis. The results of the study are discussed in relation to the related literature.
 
 

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Capitals’ contribution to educational achievement and their role in one’s success or failure within classrooms are paramount, which is why they have been often discussed in the realm of the sociology of education. Adding the newly-developed concept of sensory capital as a complement to the existing capitals, the present study seeks to statistically find the potential relationships these capitals may have with each other and their possible influences on educational achievement. To accomplish this, first, a questionnaire was designed and validated to quantify the amount of sensory capital. Then, along with emotional, social, cultural, and economic capital questionnaires, it was given to 410 participants whose language scores were used as an indicator of educational achievement. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was run, the results of which indicated positive relationships among all types of capital and a significant role in language achievement score, with economic capital having the highest and social capital having the lowest contribution. Therefore, capitals can be concluded to both have a significant relationship with each other and a determining role in educational achievement that should be taken into account when it comes to dealing with educational success in academic environments.

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Given the importance of cultural issues in different societies, scholars have introduced the ethnography of communication to examine the differences in light of language and context. Related to this theory is Hymes’ SPEAKING model (1967), in which setting and scene, participants, ends, acts sequence, key, instrumentalities, norms, and genre are taken into account to analyze speech events. Since the words and expressions we use in everyday speech have emotional loads, adding an emotional aspect to this model (E-SPEAKING) seems to provide a more comprehensive picture regarding cultural and linguistic interpretations. The present study; therefore, first, introduces the concept of emoling by analyzing [Nāz Kardan]-related vocabularies, and then, by considering closing and opening discourse, tries to relate the concepts of ethnography of communication and emotional ethnography. Such cultural emolings can reduce the existing gap between social and psychological studies and lead to a more holistic view on language and culture, which consequently prevent separating emotions from cultures.
1. Introduction
In the daily interactions and culture of a society, factors such as linguistic and grammatical knowledge, sociocultural knowledge, pragmatic knowledge and the skill of using a language are all important. Given the interconnectedness of language and culture, one can understand the cultural aspects of a language through examining the language of speakers. In addition, according to the theory of cultural relativity, what is considered right in one culture might be deemed wrong in another culture. As such, language can be considered as a reflection of people’s culture and thoughts. Hymes (1967), an American social anthropologist and linguist, is one of the scholars who introduced the factors affecting the interaction among people through proposing SPEAKING model. To him, through examining these factors, a comprehensive picture of individuals’ culture and thoughts can be obtained. In the SPEAKING model, while the role of social and cultural knowledge in interactions are highlighted, the psychological dimensions of interactions are ignored. Besides, the social and cultural knowledge, words and phrases have some emotional loads (positive and negative), which are effective in recognition, conceptualization, and cultural interpretation of a phenomenon. It should be noted that if we do not consider the importance of emotion in our interactions, we cannot provide a clear picture of people’s culture. Based on this logic, in the present study, the authors introduce the concept of Emoling (Language + Emotion) (Pishghadam & Ebrahimi, 2020) as a complement and new dimension of Hymes’ (1967) model. They extend the model of ethnography of communication to emo-ethnography of communication to answer the question of how it is possible to make an association among language, culture, and emotions of individuals in conversation. The hypothesis of the present study is that by adding the dimension of emotion, the words, linguistic expressions, and all components of the Hymes’ model can be affected by our emotions. It is also assumed that emotions can notably affect the intentions of the speaker and the audience in a conversation.
2. Literature Review
The studies conducted on the ethnography of communication and SPEAKING model are both theoretical and practical. In a number of previous studies, only the importance of the ethnography of communication and SPEAKING model has been considered. In these cases, researchers have only defined the model theoretically. This model has been considered in many English studies (e.g., Afful, 2017; Angelelli, 2000; Johnstone & Marcellino, 2010; Ray & Biswas, 2011; Small, 2008; Umezinwa, 2017). Inspired by the ideas of Halliday (1975, 1994), Vygotsky (1978, 1986), and Sapir and Whorf (1956), which imply the relationship among culture, thought, and language, Pishghadam (2013) coalesced the two words ‘language’ and ‘culture’ and introduced the concept of “Cultuling” as a transformational tool in sociological studies of language. To him, “Cultuling refers to those structures and expressions of language which portray the cultural image of a nation” (Pishghadam, 2013, p. 47). In fact, language can fully represent the culture of a society. Hence, if we raise people’s awareness of the existing cultulings of their culture, we can eradicate the defective cultural genes and pave the way for cultural excellence. After the introduction of cultuling by Pishghadam (2013), many cultulings ​​such as Swearing (Pishghadam & Attaran, 2014), Praying (Pishghadam & Vahidnia, 2016), cursing (Pishghadam et al., 2015), Haji (Pishghadam & Noruz Kermanshahi, 2016), Qesmat (Pishghadam & Attaran, 2016), I don't know (Pishghadam & Firooziyan Pour Esfahani, 2017), Nāz (Pishghadam et al., 2018), Cherophobia (Pishghadam, Firooziyan Pour Esfahani, et al., 2020), Positive-thinking (Pishghadam, Derakhshan, et al., 2020), Patriarchy and Matriarchy (Pishghadam, Derakhshan, Ebrahimi, et al., 2020) were analyzed in light of Hymes’ SPEAKING model through which comprehensive information about each cultuling can be easily obtained.
 
 
3. Methodology
Given the importance of emotions in reflecting the thoughts, language, and culture of a society, in the present study, the authors introduce the concept of cultural emoling. This concept refers to those emotions that lie behind the linguistic expressions and may have their own unique meanings in a particular culture. By introducing the concept of emoling, the model of ethnography of communication can be extended to the emo-ethnography of communication, which narrows the existing gap between sociological and psychological studies. In social communications, besides the sociological elements relying solely on the interconnectedness of language and culture, the psychological components of emotion can be considered as well. The emotional load of expressions (emoling) reflects the individuals’ way of thinking who use them in the form of linguistic expressions (cultural emoling). Thus, in discourse analysis, a holistic relation among language, culture, and emotion can be considered. Based on this, cultural emolings can represent the type of language, thought, and underlying emotion of words. They can also be applied as a good model for analyzing linguistic expressions of each culture.
In this regard, the authors postulate that due to the crucial role of words’ emotions in daily life and the importance of contraction and expansion in discourse, the model of ethnographic of communication can be extended to emo-ethnography of communication, and Hymes’ SPEAKING model can also be changed to E-SPEAKING model through adding the new dimension of emotion. In this model, the contraction and expansion of discourse, arising from the underlying emotions of words and linguistic expressions, can influence all components of the Hymes’ model, including “Setting/Scene, Participants, End, Act sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norms of interaction, and Genres”. Based on these emotions, participants can determine their position in the discourse. In such circumstances, these emotions well define the track of the conversation. Having conceptualizedthese two new concepts, the authors have studied the cultuling of “Nāz” in Iranian culture in the light of emo-ethnography of communication model to portray the importance of emoling in this model. It should be noted that this cultuling and its related vocabulary items have been frequently used in Iranian culture, and Iranians have a high degree of emotion towards this word.
 
4. Conclusion
Since each emotion is accompanied by a set of cognitive assessments (Achar et al. 2016), if individuals have a positive emotion about a word, phrase, and discourse, they will use it frequently in their speech. Consequently, such words are more likely to be reproduced through cultural genes than words that produce negative emotions and discoursal contraction. Thus, emotions can alter the center of discourse authority, open up discourse and linguistic horizons (positive emotions), and create discoursal expansion and contraction (negative emotions). Discoursal contraction and expansion can encourage people to continue the conversation or discourage them to end the conversation. Furthermore, the underlying emotion of words is important enough through which the inside and the outside world of a person can be differentiated. In other words, emotion is related to individuals’ brain and highly associated with their thoughts. Therefore, substituting words containing negative emotional load with words that produce a positive emotion is of high importance. People should be cognizant that the words they employ in their daily interactions may produce negative emotions in the individuals’ minds. Hence, people should recognize the feelings and emotions of their audiences and talk to them accordingly. The role of these emotions in online conversations is even more important. In online contexts, people may have no knowledge of each other, and each word they use will unintentionally produce different emotions in their audiences.
High emotionally intelligent people may have high social intelligence as well. These people can effectively manage their verbal relationships with others. Even at a higher level, emotionally intelligent people can alter how people think through changing the underlying emotion of words (Mayer et al., 2008). Therefore, the ability to monitor and control emotions can be considered a comprehensive guide in detecting cultural thoughts and behaviors. Consequently, in order to represent a tangible and accurate picture of each culture, behaviors and thoughts of individuals, as well as the psychological and sociological components should be considered simultaneously. Therefore, culturologists, anthropologists and sociologists are strongly advised to consider the psychological dimensions of culture in their research.
 

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Based on multifarious levels of social status, education, and occupation, people have certain values which construct and reconstruct their identity. In the Iranian culture, “Devaluation” means blemishing these values that make people ignore individuals’ val­ues and virtues through certain linguistic expressions. Studying these expressions, one can achieve its dominant culture in Iranian society. Therefore, the current research is an attempt to study Devaluation Cultuling (culture+language) in light of the conceptual model of cultuling analysis. By integrating the components of Hymes’s (1967) SPEAKING model, emotioncy model and cultural models, the conceptual model of cultuling analysis is the most comprehensive model for studying cultulings of the Persian language. Studying 712 linguistic structures and expressions containing devaluation cultuling and interviewing 140 individuals, the authors found that devaluation cultuling is commonly used in Iranian culture with high frequency, and individuals have negative feelings toward this cultuling. Iranians employ devaluation cultuling for various purposes such as destructing and belittling others’ achievements, insulting, questioning the culture of community members, flattering and hiding their weaknesses. Findings demonstrated that this cultuling could represent cultural models of indirectness, high context, low trust, and holistic thinking of Iranians. Informing people about devaluation cultuling enables us to modify and change this defective cultural gene.

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Of the effective ways to have successful interactions, the proper use of words could be mentioned. The vocabulary items chosen by the speaker can act as conversation starters. Consciously chosen vocabulary items that are attractive and functional enough could make a profound impact on the audience. The success of the speaker's utterance is effectively ensured by a web of vocabulary items that may have been carefully picked up in accordance with the theme of the discussion and the audience's taste. The present study, therefore, sets forth the concept of "language decoration" as an interdisciplinary approach in establishing effective communications. Language decoration means ornamenting the content and form of the utterance so as to affect the audience significantly. In fact, language decoration can reveal individuals' identity and personality and is firmly rooted within their linguistic competence. In view of the importance of thinking, emotion, sense, and culture in conversations and considering the fact that "postlocution" moves beyond communicative competence, the current study endeavors to put forward literary ornaments, psychological ornaments, cultural ornaments, sensory ornaments at the forefront of language decoration. Moreover, it advances this view that through cogbination (cognition+combination), emobination (emotion+combination), culbination (culture+combination), and sensbination (sense+combination), people could decorate their utterances and consequently, improve their communicative performance.

1. Introduction
Language is a tool for effective communication between members of a community in which the ways it is used matter much. That implies that people use language to express their opinions, thoughts, and feelings. Indeed, they describe their relationship through language. From this point of view, language serves as a tool for giving people an identity, and how language is used in conversations is of significance for achieving goals and intentions.
This should be noted that in addition to exchanging information in conversations, attention should also be paid to the audience's understanding and selection of appropriate elements for a talk, and merely transferring information to the audience without considering the effect of lexical items on them may lead to poor communication. Broadly speaking, listeners tend to follow a conversation that is interesting, valuable, and useful and is presented with a simple and understandable language. Therefore, the type of lexical items used by a speaker and the extent of his efforts to attract the audience's attention are essential factors in any conversation. It is undeniable that for delivering an effective speech, people should plan and organize their content and gain the necessary experience and skills to convey it to others. If an individual wishes to have an effective conversation, he must know how to embellish his words to yield a positive effect on the audience and their emotions. Given that each individual has a degree of feelings and the emotional load of words varies from person to person, how to use lexical items in conversation is of paramount importance. Therefore, we can improve the quality of our daily interactions and communication through embellishing the speech and applying its principles. Accordingly, language, like environmental objects, can be decorated and presented to the audience in a more beautiful way. Therefore, paying attention to such elements as emotions, senses, and culture matters in communicating with others.
In view of the importance of this issue, the authors of the present inquiry attempt to explore an approach that goes beyond communicative competence. This novel approach not only transmits the message but also takes into account the audience's emotional and cognitive aspects in any communication. Therefore, after examining the concepts related to communicative competence, the theoretical framework is introduced, and based on that, the concept of language decoration is proposed, and relevant solutions are presented.

2. Literature Review
The main function of language is "communication", which is the reason why language theories such as "communicative competence" proposed by Hymes (1972) have well-addressed this issue. For Hymes (1972), communicative competence refers to the knowledge that a person can rely on to have effective and efficient communication with others and to determine whether a sentence is appropriate in certain situations or not. Canale and Swain (1980) considered communicative competence to consist of four dimensions, which should be taken into consideration for building a successful relationship with others.
A. Grammatical competence: knowing the lexical capacity and grammar (mastering words and grammar) and determining grammatically-correct sentences.
B. Discourse competence: knowing how to relate sentences to each other in terms of form and meaning (coherence) and achieving verbal cohesion.
C. Sociolinguistic competence: obtaining necessary information on how to choose words based on the audience type and socio-cultural context.
D. Strategic competence: using linguistic and non-linguistic strategies necessary to start, end, continue, repair and change the direction of communication.
Pishghadam et al. (2019) are of the view that in addition to the above-mentioned types of competence, another dimension called emo-sensory competence is also important for establishing effective communication. This is because people should pay attention to the audience emotionally to communicate more effectively. Accordingly, the smaller the emotional distance between the speaker and the audience, the more common understanding of the subject is formed, and consequently, the greater the rate of learning and understanding. Given that the theory of communicative competence only focuses on communicating and achieving personal desires and goals in conversation, Pishghadam and Ebrahimi (2020) introduced "linguo-therapeutic competence" (language for a better life) to complement the above-mentioned types of competence on effective communication. In this type of competence, language is seen as a tool for behavioral change, growth and a tool for improving another person's well-being. It is clear that if the speaker creates a balance between these language roles in their communication, pays more attention to the mentioned types of competence, and be more aware of them, they can build a more successful relationship with the audience. Besides this competence, speakers should also pay attention to speech acts in an effective conversation. Austin (1975) introduced the speech act theory and believes that the speaker does the actions through uttering sentences. Each sentence consists of the locutionary act (i.e., the literal meaning), the illocutionary act (i.e., the speaker's intention for communication), and the perlocutionary act (i.e., the effect of a sentence on the audience). These acts make people pursue a specific goal through uttering a sentence even though this goal may or may not be achieved.
Pishghadam and Ebrahimi (2020) also introduced the concept of "postlocution" and maintained that utterances may have a long-term effect on the audience. At times, utterances can have a long-term effect on people; therefore, individuals should consider the "postlocution" of their words in a successful conversation. This should be noted that in communicative competence, the speaker tends to achieve his own personal goals and intentions through language. Therefore, any use of language is self-oriented. The concept of "postlocution" is, however, other-oriented language wherein the individual pays attention to not only themselves but also others, and in fact, they attempt to make others feel good. Therefore, they are of the view although achieving the goal is important for effective and successful communication, boosting the audience's mood also matters.

3. Methodology
In the present study, the concept of language decoration is proposed as an interdisciplinary approach in building effective communications. Language decoration means embellishing lexical items in terms of content and meaning to have a greater impact on the audience during the conversation. As a matter of fact, language decoration manifests the identity and personality of people with a high level of verbal intelligence, and by highlighting the main functions of language, it makes speech more attractive. Given the importance of emotions, feelings, and culture in effective communications and considering the concept of "postlocution", which goes beyond communicative competence, the authors of the present work have proposed literary, psychological, cultural, and sensory decoration strategies. They are of the view that individuals can decorate their talk and speech through such techniques as cogbination (cognition+combination), emobination (emotion+combination), culbination (culture+combination), and sensbination (sense+combination), and consequently, improve the quality of their daily interactions and communications.

4. Results
Given the fact that the most important part of any communication is how to convey information, learning the main principles and skills of effective communication is of importance in building a strong relationship. Therefore, the art of having effective communication is a key factor in measuring individuals' success. That is why the ability to speak well and decorate the talk play important roles in making conversations more interesting and creating effective relationships. Given that such components as attitudes, cultures, emotions, and senses affect the quality of communication, they can also serve as linguistic ornaments.
Language decoration skills can be learned, and individuals can enhance these skills by learning related techniques. Employing interdisciplinary knowledge and putting together areas of sociology, psychology, linguistics, anthropology, etc., can help individuals communicate effectively through language decoration. In the present study, language decoration included literary, psychological, cultural, and sensory ornaments. It should be noted that for individuals to be successful in language decoration, they should use cogbination (using thoughtful quotes by famous people like Saadi and Descartes), emobination (using stimulating words), culbination (paying attention to traditional and modern cultural expressions), and sensbination (engaging audience visually and auditorily, etc.).
Overall, this can be concluded that for having effective communication, all people, regardless of their profession, need to know the techniques of giving a good speech mastering the art of language decoration. Mastery over language decoration techniques and oratory skills can help people communicate more effectively with their audience and successfully persuade and influence them.
In other words, if people harness and use techniques of language decoration, the audience will be more receptive to their talk and will listen with more interest. Therefore, the speaker is successful in any communication, and their message—which is accompanied by attractiveness and proper applications—is easily conveyed to the audience without evoking any negative emotions in them, which is the overall goal of language decoration.

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Abstract It is safe to say that motivation is one of the most controversial concepts of study in all social sciences especially psychology. Concerned with this controversy, the purpose of this study was to investigate the problems of defining and theorizing about motivation. To this end, the tendency and capability of Iranian English learners and native speakers to distinguish motive and motivation was investigated. Moreover, the problems were situated in a historical context to shed light on the reasons behind them through a structural and genealogical approach. Based on the results all the participants including only distinguished motivation and motive where both of them were present, otherwise, they were treated synonymously. The structural analysis of motivation as a word resulted in a very broad definition: the whole process of moving toward a goal. This extensive meaning, which includes both mental and outside factors, cannot be accounted for in a single theory. Therefore, in the process of becoming a concept and then a measurable construct, the range of meaning has shrunk. It, in technical terms, is the inevitable result of embracing the ontology of analytical philosophy, which ends up in moving toward fixity and identity, by most psychologists. Being aware of these facts can play a major role in preventing motivational scholars from making unjustified conclusion based on their findings.

1. Introduction
The first psychological use of the term ‘motivation’ dates back to 1901 and has been a main concern and a controversial topic in psychology. It is also one of the most important, controversial, and debated concepts in SLL research. The common belief is that motivation is the indispensable factor in all facets of language learning without which the efforts for accomplishment would be in vain, and it can also make up for lack of abilities in other skills. Acknowledging the problems that surround motivation, this study aims at inspecting these problems, discovering the reasons behind them, and coming up with a comprehensive definition for motivation.
Research Question(s)
1. Do English native speakers differentiate motive and motivation when one of them is present (error-recognition test)?
2. Do Iranians majoring in English differentiate motive and motivation in error-recognition test?
3. Is there any difference among male native English speakers, female native English speakers, male Iranians majoring in English, and female Iranians majoring in English in the error-recognition test?
4. Do English native speakers differentiate motive and motivation when both of them are present (two-options test)?
5. Do Iranians majoring in English differentiate motive and motivation in the two-options test?
6. Is there any difference among male native English speakers, female native English speakers, male Iranians majoring in English, and female Iranians majoring in English in the two-options test?
7. Is there any difference between participants who took the error-recognition test and those who took the two-options test?
8. Structurally speaking, what could have been the meaning of motivation as a word?
9. What are the sources of the difficulties surrounding the definition of motivation?
10. In what ways the meaning of motivation has diverged throughout its life in the field of psychology?

2. Literature Review
2.1. Motivation in Psychology
Earliest attempts of psychologists to capture the essence of the concept is what came to be known as instinct approaches. In these approaches, inborn, biologically determined factors i.e., instincts, were considered to be the reasons behind behaviors. Later, drive-reduction approaches emerged to compensate for the problems inherent in instinct approaches. In these new approaches, the reason behind any behavior was considered to be lack of some biological needs which creates a drive for action to satisfy those needs. Regarding the drive-reduction approaches, two different criticisms appeared: they could not explain behaviors in which the goal was to increase arousal, and  lacked the rationale needed in accounting for behaviors which do not follow an internal drive. The line of work addressing the first criticism resulted in the development of arousal approaches the main proposal of which was  that each person wants to maintain a certain amount of arousal. Furthermore, incentive approaches emerged to cover external drives addressed in the second criticism. The shortcoming inherent in previous approaches paved the way for the emergence of cognitive approaches in which the source of motivation was believed to reside in people’s cognition, i.e., mental information processing or thinking.

2.2. Motivation in SLA
Dornyei and Ryan divide the historical development of L2 motivation research into three periods: social psychological, cognitive-situated, and process-oriented. The first trend differentiated language learning from other school subjects because, as the proponents proposed, it is not a neutral subject. The second trend started off as an attempt to connect with motivational psychology and study motivation in actual classroom settings. Beside temporal nature, attended to by cognitive situated period, the socio-dynamic perspective emphasized the dynamic character of motivation i.e., its fluctuation in response to the changes in environment.

3. Methodology
In general, 200 English native speakers (half male and half female), and 200 MA or Ph.D. students majoring in English (half male and half female) participated in this study. These participants were 22 to 42 years of age and agreed to participate in the second phase of the study via email. Twenty novels (both originally English and translated works) were randomly selected from the lists of ‘best novels of time’ provided by the Telegraph, the Guardian, and Time magazine. The word ‘motive’ has been used 241 times in these novels twelve of which, were randomly selected and used as materials to develop two tests: an error-recognition test and a two-options test. The Crosstabulation and Chi-square Test were conducted to reveal whether the participants differentiate motive and motivation in two different scenarios: first when only one of them is present, and secondly when both of them are provided as options. This data analysis was conducted both as a whole, and separately for Iranians and native speakers across both genders. Subsequently, a series of T-tests and ANOVA Tests were performed based on their scores to find out whether there is a significant difference among participants across gender, and language status.


4. Results and Conclusion
This study revealed that ‘movere’ which means to move, is the principal root of motivation. Another word that has its root in ‘movere’ is motive, the meaning of which has become so close to motivation. The results of the first part confirmed this proximity of meaning: both native speakers and Iranians majoring in English did not differentiate motive and motivation when only one of them was present. However, both group did differentiate them when both of them were primed. Simply put, although English users know and expect motive and motivation to convey different meanings, they could easily end up neglecting this expected difference. The definition of human motivation at point zero, as recreated through its linguistic structure in the second part of the study, turned out to be ‘everything that happens and/or is at play from the beginning of a behavior till its end whether the goal is accomplished or the behavior is abandoned for various reasons’. The review disclosed that this definition is practically nonexistent in the literature for various reasons such as:

• the analytical ontological orientation dominant in research projects within humanities and social sciences
• the inclination of researchers and theorizers toward preciseness and fixity at the expense of excluding differences
• the transition from word to concept within scientific fields of study
• the requirements of establishing a construct in scientific research projects.

 

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This study sought to investigate the probable relationships among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers' active/passive motivation, their sense of efficacy, and burnout. To this end, the Active/Passive Motivation Scale (APMS), Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES), and Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) were administered to 245 Iranian EFL teachers. Next, in order to substantiate the construct validity of the APMS, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted. Moreover, correlational analyses and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were employed to explore the relationships among the variables. The results indicated significant relationships between active/passive motivation and all subconstructs of TSES, between active motivation and all subconstructs of burnout, and between passive motivation and two burnout subscales, namely emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment. Additionally, while no significant relationship was found between age and the three constructs, the results demonstrated that teaching experience and teacher’s sense of efficacy were positively correlated. Female teachers were also found to be less likely to feel depersonalized. Moreover, mediated by active motivation, teacher efficacy was a significant negative predictor of teacher burnout. Finally, the implications of the study for administrators and teachers were discussed and suggestions were made for further research.